CRS Reviews History of Extending Unemployment Compensation Benefits
RL34340
- AuthorsWhittaker, Julie M.Isaacs, Katelin P.
- Institutional AuthorsCongressional Research Service
- Code Sections
- Subject Area/Tax Topics
- Jurisdictions
- LanguageEnglish
- Tax Analysts Document NumberDoc 2013-10939
- Tax Analysts Electronic Citation2013 TNT 88-18
Julie M. Whittaker
Specialist in Income Security
Katelin P. Isaacs
Analyst in Income Security
May 2, 2013
Summary
This report describes the history of temporary federal extensions to unemployment benefits from 1980 to the present. Among these extensions is the Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08) program created by P.L. 110-252 (amended by P.L. 110-449, P.L. 111-5, P.L. 111-92, P.L. 111-118, P.L. 111-144, P.L. 111-157, P.L. 111-205, P.L. 111-312, P.L. 112-78, P.L. 112-96, and P.L. 112-240).
This report contains five sections. The first section provides background information on unemployment compensation (UC) benefits. It also provides a brief summary of UC benefit exhaustion and how exhaustion rates are related to the business cycle.
The second section provides the definition of a recession as well as the determination process for declaring a recession. It also provides information on the timing of all recessions since 1980.
The third section summarizes the legislative history of federal extensions of unemployment benefits. It includes information on the permanently authorized extended benefit (EB) program as well as information on temporary unemployment benefit extensions. It also includes a brief discussion on the role of extended unemployment benefits as part of an economic stimulus package.
The fourth section provides figures examining the timing of recessions and statistics that may be considered for determining extending unemployment benefits.
The fifth section briefly discusses previous methods for financing these temporary programs. In particular it attempts to identify provisions in temporary extension legislation that may have led to increases in revenue or decreases in spending related to unemployment benefits.
This report will be updated to reflect new laws extending unemployment benefits.
Contents
Unemployment Compensation and Exhaustion of Benefits
UC Benefits and Duration
Monitoring Search, Generosity of Unemployment Benefits, and
Disincentives to Find Work
UC Benefit Exhaustion
Recessions
Determination of a Recession
Most Recent Recession Began December 2007 and Ended June
2009
Recessions from 1980 to Present
Federal Programs of Extended Unemployment Compensation
Extended Benefit Program (Determined at the State Level)
EB Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
of 2009
Temporary EB Trigger Modifications in P.L. 111-312
Temporary Federal Extensions of Unemployment Benefits:
Congressional Intervention in Recessions
Temporary Extended UC Benefits as Economic Stimulus
Assessing the Labor Market: Determining When to Intervene
Improving the UC System as an Automatic Stabilizer
Advisory Council on Unemployment Compensation's 1994
Findings and Recommendations for the Extended Benefit
Program
Using the Insured Unemployment Rate vs. Total Unemployment Rate
National, State, and Sub-State Triggers
Increases in Unemployment of at Least 1 Million Unemployed as
Compared with the Same Month in the Previous Year
Other Measures: Changes in UC Benefits Exhaustions and Changes
in Long-Term Unemployment
Congressional Interest in "Paying for Temporary Benefits"
Increases in Revenues or Decreases in Expenditures Related to
Temporary Unemployment Benefit Legislation
Congressional Interest in the "Maximum Length of Total UI Benefits
over Time"
Figures
Figure 1. Economic Recessions, Percentage of Regular UC
Beneficiaries to All Unemployed, and UC Benefit
Exhaustees, January 1979-July 2012
Figure 2. Recessions, Changes in Unemployment Compared with the Same
Month in Previous Year, Unemployment Rates, and Temporary
Federal Benefit Availability, January 1979-July 2012
Figure 3. Recessions, Changes in Regular UC Benefit Exhaustions
Compared with the Same Month in Previous Year, and
Unemployment Rates, January 1979-July 2012
Figure 4. Recessions, Changes in Long-Term Unemployment Compared
with the Same Month in Previous Year, and Unemployment
Rates, January 1979-July 2012
Tables
Table A-1. Summary of Extended Unemployment Compensation Programs
Table A-2. Details: Federal Supplemental Compensation (FSC) Benefits
Table A-3. Details: Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC)
Benefits of 1991
Table A-4. Details: Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08)
Benefits of 2008
Table A-5. Timing of Recessions, 12-Month Change of at Least One
Million, and Extended Unemployment Benefits, 1990-2013
Table A-6. Funding Temporary Unemployment Programs
Table A-7. Potential Maximum Available Weeks of Unemployment
Benefits, 1935 Present
Appendixes
Appendix. Related Tables
Contacts
Author Contact Information
Unemployment Compensation and Exhaustion of Benefits
The cornerstone of an unemployed worker's income support is the joint federal-state Unemployment Compensation (UC)1 program, which may provide income support through the payment of UC benefits. The underlying framework of the UC system is contained in the Social Security Act. Title III of the act authorizes grants to states for the administration of state UC laws, Title IX authorizes the various components of the federal Unemployment Trust Fund (UTF), and Title XII authorizes advances or loans to insolvent state UC programs. UC is financed by federal taxes under the Federal Unemployment Tax Act (FUTA) and by state payroll taxes under the State Unemployment Tax Acts (SUTA).
The federal government funds federal and state UC program administration, the federal share (50% under permanent law) of Extended Benefit (EB) payments, 100% of the Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08) program, and federal loans to insolvent state UC programs. States fund regular state UC benefits and the state share (50%) of EB payments. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5, as amended) temporarily provides for 100% federal funding of EB through December 31, 2013.
UC Benefits and Duration
Workers who lose their jobs face serious long-term economic implications. In general, they face a substantially reduced probability of full-time employment and an increased probability of part-time employment. Those workers who find new full-time employment on average experience significantly decreased earnings relative to what they earned before they lost employment.
The UC program pays benefits to workers in covered employment who become involuntarily unemployed for economic reasons and meet state-established eligibility rules. The UC program generally does not provide UC benefits to the self-employed, to those who are unable to work, or to those who do not have a recent earnings history. States usually disqualify claimants who lost their jobs because of inability to work or unavailability for work, who voluntarily quit without good cause, who were discharged for job-related misconduct, or who refused suitable work without good cause.
This temporary unemployment insurance benefit is designed to be sufficient to meet an unemployed worker's basic obligations until the worker finds a new position. Generally, benefits are based on wages for covered work over a 12-month period. The entitlement formula varies by state, typically requiring a substantial work history and replacing up to 50% of workers' wages. Generally, the maximum benefit amount is capped (often half of the average wage in the state or less), which lowers the average national replacement rate to 32.7% of the average weekly wage in the last quarter of 2012.
Weekly maximums in January 2013 ranged from $133 (Puerto Rico) to $674 (Massachusetts) and, in states that provide dependents' allowances, up to $1,011 (Massachusetts). In January 2013, the average weekly benefit was $304. Benefits are available for up to 26 weeks in most states (30 weeks in Massachusetts; 28 weeks in Montana; eight other states have maximum durations that are fewer than 26 weeks).2 The average regular UC benefit duration in January 2013 was 17.0 weeks, with almost half (47%) of all beneficiaries exhausting their regular benefits. In January 2013, approximately 3.2 million unemployed workers received regular state UC benefits in a given week. In 2012, on average, 27% of all U.S. unemployed workers received regular state unemployment benefits (when all extended unemployment benefits are included that percentage increases to 49%).
Generally, the UC recipiency rate (the ratio of unemployed receiving UC benefits to all unemployed) rises during economic recessions (as workers with strong labor market experience are laid-off) and falls during economic expansions (as new entrants to the labor market begin to comprise a greater proportion of the unemployed).3
Monitoring Search, Generosity of Unemployment Benefits, and Disincentives to Find Work
The difficulty in monitoring job search intensity creates the risk the unemployed will abuse a system designed to alleviate the worst financial aspects of job loss. Although most economists would agree that UC benefits create some disincentives to find work quickly, these disincentives are somewhat balanced by a relatively low replacement rate of wages by UC benefits and a recognition that proper allocation of human resources and human capital requires adequate job search time.4
The job-search behavior of the unemployed can be influenced by changing the timing, generosity, and duration of UC benefits. Higher benefit levels and easier program requirements for benefits will cause recipients to be less willing to accept jobs and may alleviate some of the social stigma from being unemployed.5 The availability of benefits may create a disincentive to search for and accept reemployment, increasing unemployment and unemployment duration.6 Economic research has suggested that this disincentive effect is relatively small and not a particularly large contributor to the high unemployment rates found during economic recessions.7
UC Benefit Exhaustion
The limited duration of UC benefits (generally 26 weeks8 ) will result in some unemployed individuals exhausting their UC benefits before finding work or voluntarily leaving the labor force for other reasons such as retirement, disability, family care, or education. Empirical research suggests that workers who exhaust benefits search at similar or higher levels of intensity as those workers who do find employment before benefit exhaustion.9 All state programs attempt to identify potential benefit exhaustees through a state specific profiling system. Workers who are identified as likely to become unemployed long-term may be offered intensive employment services.10
Figure 1 displays the percentage of UC beneficiaries both as a percentage of all unemployed workers (the "recipiency rate") and as the number of UC benefit exhaustees since 1979. (Please note that Figure 1 uses different numerical scales for the recipiency rate and for the exhaustion rate. Because the correspondence between the two scales was determined by scaling size rather than by a particular economic correspondence, readers should not place any significance in the two lines crossing each other. The scale for the recipiency rate is located on the left-hand y-axis. The scale for the UC benefit exhaustees is located on the right-hand y-axis.)
The proportion of UC recipients who exhaust their benefits varies according to economic conditions, state benefit duration formulas, and the composition of the labor force. Some evidence suggests that an aging workforce may have increased the proportion of unemployed workers who are long-term unemployed; at the same time, this aging workforce may also have contributed to the decrease in the overall unemployment rate.11
Figure 1. Economic Recessions, Percentage of Regular UC
Beneficiaries to All Unemployed, and UC Benefit Exhaustees,
January 1979-July 2012
Source: Congressional Research Service. Data are from Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration. http://www.doleta.gov/unemploy/chartbook.cfm.
Recessions
Determination of a Recession
The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) -- not the federal government -- declares when a recession began.12 A recession is a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months, normally visible in measures of real gross domestic product (GDP), real income, employment, industrial production, and wholesale-retail sales.13 A recession begins just after the economy reaches a peak of activity and ends as the economy reaches its trough. Between a trough and a peak, the economy is in an expansion.
Most Recent Recession Began December 2007 and Ended June 2009
The NBER maintains a time line of the U.S. business cycle. This chronology identifies the dates of peaks and troughs that frame economic recessions or expansions. According to NBER, a peak was reached in December 2007, marking the end of the expansion that began in November 2001 and thus marking the beginning of the recession that ended in June 2009.
Recessions from 1980 to Present
Since 1980, there have been five separate periods that the NBER has identified as recessions: January 1980-July 1980; July 1981-November 1982; July 1990-March 1991; March 2001-November 2001; and the December 2007-June 2009 recession.
Federal Programs of Extended Unemployment Compensation
The Unemployment Compensation program's two main objectives are to provide temporary and partial wage replacement to involuntarily unemployed workers and to stabilize the economy during recessions.14 These objectives are reflected in the current UC program's funding and benefit structure. When the economy grows, UC program revenue rises through increased tax revenues while UC program spending falls as fewer workers are unemployed and receive benefits. The effect of collecting more taxes while decreasing spending on benefits dampens demand in the economy. This also creates a surplus of funds or a "cushion" of available funds for the UC program to draw upon during a recession. In a recession, UC tax revenue falls and UC program spending rises as more workers lose their jobs and receive UC benefits. The increased amount of UC payments to unemployed workers dampens the economic effect of lost earnings by injecting additional funds into the economy.
In response to economic recessions, the federal government sometimes has augmented the regular UC benefit with both permanent (the Extended Benefit program) and temporary extensions (including the Emergency Unemployment Compensation program) of the duration of unemployment benefits.
Extended Benefit Program (Determined at the State Level)
The Extended Benefit (EB) program was established by the Federal-State Extended Unemployment Compensation Act of 1970 (EUCA), P.L. 91-373 (26 U.S.C. 3304, note). EUCA may extend receipt of unemployment benefits (extended benefits) at the state level if certain economic situations exist within the state. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981, P.L. 97-35, among other items, amended the EUCA to require that claimants have worked at least 20 weeks of full-time insured employment or the equivalent in insured wages.
The EB program is triggered when a state's insured unemployment rate (IUR)15 or total unemployment rate (TUR)16 reaches certain levels. All states must pay up to 13 weeks of EB if the IUR for the previous 13 weeks is at least 5% and is 120% of the average of the rates for the same 13-week period in each of the 2 previous years. There are two other optional thresholds that states may choose. (States may choose one, two, or neither of the additional options.) If the state has chosen the option, they would provide the following:
Option 1: an additional 13 weeks of benefits if the state's IUR is at least 6%, regardless of previous years' averages.
Option 2: an additional 13 weeks of benefits if the state's TUR is at least 6.5% and is at least 110% of the state's average TUR for the same 13-weeks in either of the previous two years; an additional 20 weeks of benefits if the TUR is at least 8% and is at least 110% of the state's average TUR for the same 13-weeks in either of the previous two years.
The EB program imposes additional restrictions on individual eligibility for benefits. It requires that a worker be actively searching and available for work. Furthermore, the worker may not receive benefits if the worker refused an offer of suitable work. Finally, claimants must have recorded at least 20 weeks of full-time insured employment or the equivalent in insured wages during their base period (the four quarters of earnings used to determine UC benefit eligibility).
EB Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
As amended, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5, also known as ARRA or the 2009 stimulus package) contained several provisions affecting unemployment benefits. Among these provisions was a temporary change increasing the federal share to 100% in the cost sharing agreement for EB through December 2011. (The permanent funding arrangement is 50% federal funding and 50% state funding.) ARRA also provided a supplemental $25 weekly benefit through May 2010 for recipients of unemployment benefits, including EB. Finally, ARRA also allows states, at their option, to temporarily change the eligibility requirements for the EB program in order to expand the number of persons eligible for EB benefits.17
Temporary EB Trigger Modifications in P.L. 111-312
P.L. 111-312 made some temporary, technical changes to certain triggers in the EB program. P.L. 111-312, as amended, allows states to temporarily use lookback calculations based on three years of unemployment rate data (rather than the current lookback of two years of data) as part of their mandatory IUR and optional TUR triggers if states would otherwise trigger off or not be on a period of EB benefits. Using a two-year versus a three-year EB trigger lookback is an important adjustment because some states are likely to trigger off of their EB periods in the near future despite high, sustained -- but not increasing -- unemployment rates.
States implement the lookback changes individually by amending their state UC laws. These state law changes must be written in such a way that if the two-year lookback is working and the state would have an active EB program, no action would be taken. But if a two-year lookback is not working as part of an EB trigger and the state is not triggered on to an EB period, then the state would be able to use a three-year lookback. This temporary option to use three-year EB trigger lookbacks expires the week ending on or before December 31, 2013. No state currently has an active EB program based upon this modification. Since February 2013, only Alaska has an active EB program.
Temporary Federal Extensions of Unemployment Benefits: Congressional Intervention in Recessions
During some economic recessions, Congress has created federal temporary programs of extended unemployment compensation. Congress acted eight times -- in 1958, 1961, 1971, 1974, 1982, 1991, 2002, and 2008 -- to establish these temporary programs of extended UC benefits. These programs extended the time an individual might claim UC benefits (ranging from an additional 6 to 63 weeks) and had expiration dates. Some extensions took into account state economic conditions; many temporary programs considered the state's total TUR or the state's IUR or both.
Historically, these programs started operation after the trough of a recession had passed (i.e., after the recession had officially ended). This is due to several reasons. One cause is that NBER often announces that a recession has begun three or more months after what is later determined to be the official start. Another cause to this lag in response time is that often the severity of the recession and its impact on unemployment levels does not become apparent until several quarters after the recession begins.
The 1958 and the 1961 programs were proposed and enacted after the trough of those recessions but before the unemployment rate had peaked. The 1971 program was enacted after the end of the recession in November 1970. Both the 1974 and 1982 programs also became effective toward the end of those recessions. The 1991 program was enacted eight months after the 1990-1991 recession trough but eight months before the unemployment rate peaked. Likewise, the 2002 program was enacted after the recession had ended but before the unemployment rate peaked. The current Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08) program of 2008 was enacted seven months after the most recent recession began.18
Table A-1 located in the Appendix briefly summarizes these temporary programs19 as well as the permanently authorized EB program. The 1982 Federal Supplemental Compensation (FSC) and 1991 Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC) programs had extremely complicated -- and changing -- benefit triggers. Table A-2 and Table A-3 (also located in the Appendix) provide detailed information on benefit triggers for those two temporary programs. Table A-4 provides information on the current EUC08 program benefits and triggers.
Temporary Extended UC Benefits as Economic Stimulus
In the 110th Congress, congressional and popular debate examined the relative efficacy of expansion of UC benefits and duration compared with other potential economic stimuli. In his January 22, 2009, congressional testimony, the Director of the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) stated that increasing the value or duration of UC benefits may be one of the more effective economic stimulus plans.20 This is because many of the unemployed are severely cash constrained and would be expected to rapidly spend any increase in benefits that they may receive and that the certainty of this behavior was very high.21 Mark Zandi of Moody's Economy.com estimated multiplier effects for several different policy options, including extending unemployment benefits. Unemployment benefits had one of the highest estimated effects (1.64, where all proposed interventions ranged from 0.25 to 1.73).22
Others pointed out that increasing either the value or length of UC benefits may, however, discourage recipients from searching for work and from accepting less desirable jobs or that their spouses might forestall seeking additional work.23 A rationale for making any extension in unemployment benefits temporary would be to mitigate disincentives to work, as the extension would expire once the economy improves and cyclical unemployment declines.
Assessing the Labor Market: Determining When to Intervene
A variety of measures are typically used to assess the state of the labor market.24 These measures may include statistics that are absolute measures, such as employment and unemployment levels, as well as relative measures, such as the insured unemployment rate and the total unemployment rate.
A vigorous debate on how to determine when the federal government should intervene by extending unemployment benefits has been active for decades. Generally, this debate has examined the efficacy of using the IUR or TUR as triggers for extending unemployment benefits. The debate also has examined whether the intervention should be at a national or state level. Recently, serious consideration of other measures of the labor market has become increasingly common. In particular, the increase in the number of unemployed from the previous year has emerged in several proposals as a new trigger for a nationwide extension of unemployment benefits.
Improving the UC System as an Automatic Stabilizer
The President's 2010 Budget proposal suggested changes to the UC system through the modification of the EB program in order to make the program more responsive to changing economic conditions.25 While little information was provided as to the specifics of the legislation, the broad description echoes the recommendations of the Advisory Council on Unemployment Compensation first published in 1994.26 The President's 2011, 2012, and 2013 Budget proposals did not have similar proposals.
Advisory Council on Unemployment Compensation's 1994 Findings and Recommendations for the Extended Benefit Program
The Advisory Council stated that the changing demographics of the workforce -- coupled with state funding problems -- had led to a decline in UC recipients. This had, in turn, caused the IUR to be a less reliable indicator of economic conditions at the state level and thus reduced the likelihood that the EB program would be active in the states during economic recessions. The Advisory Council also found that the temporary federal extensions of unemployment benefits have been "extremely inefficient" as they were neither well timed nor well targeted.
The Advisory Council generally supported that the EB program use a state TUR of 6.5% as an indicator of economic conditions meriting an active EB program.27 They also suggested that any indicator not use historical comparisons or thresholds (e.g., 110% of previous year's level), which the Advisory Council labeled as "not helpful" since the threshold triggers caused the activation of the EB program to occur later and deactivate earlier than what the Advisory Council believed was appropriate.
The Advisory Council did not comment on the cost-sharing provisions of the current EB program.
Finally, the Advisory Council suggested raising the FUTA tax base from $7,000 to $8,500 in order to raise the additional funds needed by this suggested change. The President's 2012 and 2013 budget proposals included measures that would have increased the federal unemployment tax base to $15,000 while lowering the tax rate.
Using the Insured Unemployment Rate vs. Total Unemployment Rate
The Federal-State Extended Benefit Program, created by P.L. 91-373, originally assessed the labor market through both insured and "total" unemployment rates and included both national and state level triggers for extended UC benefits. The EB's federal trigger28 was eliminated by the Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-499). That act also required that the IUR measure not include those who had exhausted benefits or who were receiving EB. This effectively made the IUR statistic a less generous measure of unemployment.
Since the adoption of the permanent EB program in 1970, there has been considerable debate concerning the relative merits of the IUR versus the TUR as an EB trigger. The IUR is defined as the 13-week moving average of continuing regular UC claims divided by the average number of individuals in UC-covered employment. This means that the IUR itself is an output of the UC program.
Because the calculation of the IUR is based upon the number of individuals currently receiving UC benefits, each state's IUR depends on various noneconomic factors, including state eligibility rules and administrative practices. Thus, the IUR is not a precise reflection of the health of a state's economy.
In comparison, the TUR is defined as the number of all unemployed individuals actively seeking work divided by the size of the civilian labor force. The TUR represents a larger population than the IUR, because it counts as unemployed all those who are out of work and actively looking for work, on layoff, or waiting to start a new job within 30 days.
National, State, and Sub-State Triggers
A perennial question concerns the appropriate level at which to measure changes in unemployment. Generally this debate has centered on the EB program and whether the EB trigger should be based on national, regional, state or sub-state data. At the beginning of the most recent recession (but before the recession had been identified), the debate on the EB triggers was expanded to question what measure should be used if a new temporary extension of UC benefits were to be enacted. In particular, should Congress act as it has in the most recent recessions and create a nationwide extension of UC benefits with a nod to higher unemployment states through an additional "high-unemployment" trigger? Or would it be more appropriate and a better use of scarce resources to target only those states with current economic difficulties?
In the most recent recession, Congress first created a temporary program that did not target states based upon state unemployment rates (P.L. 110-252). Eventually, Congress expanded the temporary program and targeted much of the expansion of benefits to the unemployed in states that had higher levels of unemployment (first in P.L. 110-449 and then again in P.L. 111-92).
The argument in favor of a national trigger is that the definition of a recession is national in scope, and the federal government's interest in reversing an economic decline is national as well. However, recessions have often been primarily regional in impact. Thus, a national trigger can result in the payment of extended benefits to individuals in states that do not face unusually weak labor markets.
There have also been proposals to create triggers on either a regional or a sub-state level. The logic behind the sub-state or regional triggers is that they might improve the targeting of benefits because state boundaries are often of little relevance to the workings of labor markets. There can be considerable labor market differences between urban and rural areas within a state or among urban areas within a state. Furthermore, some labor markets are located in more than one state. A statewide trigger can deny benefits to areas facing severe labor market problems because other regions of the state are not facing the same conditions. There are a variety of arguments against regional and sub-state triggers. It would be difficult to define appropriate regional or sub-state boundaries, and it is unclear whether these newly defined regions would be any less arbitrary than current state boundaries. In addition, there are significant obstacles to be overcome in the financing and administration of an EB program on the basis of regional or sub-state areas, because the state has always been the operational unit for UC. There is also concern regarding the accuracy and availability of regional or sub-state data and the costs of data improvements that would be needed.29
Increases in Unemployment of at Least 1 Million Unemployed as Compared with the Same Month in the Previous Year
In the 110th Congress, debate moved away from using the IUR or TUR as a trigger for a national program. Serious consideration of other measures of the labor market has become increasingly common. In particular, the increase in the number of unemployed from the previous year emerged in several proposals for new triggers in a nationwide extension in unemployment benefits.
H.R. 4934, the Emergency Unemployment Compensation Act of 2008, was introduced on January 15, 2008. This bill would have extended UC benefits for up to 26 weeks when the number of unemployed persons 16 years of age or older increased by at least 1 million individuals as compared with the same month of the previous year.
Table A-5 provides information on the timing of the recessions, changes in unemployment of at least 1 million compared with same month in the previous year, and federal enactment of the temporary extensions of benefits. During this period, the temporary extensions of unemployment benefits take effect between 4 and 14 months after the onset of the recession. The first changes in unemployment compared with the same month in the previous year of at least 1 million occur between 3 and 5 months after the onset of the recession. Therefore, if the "1 million" trigger had been in place in the past, the extension of UC benefits would have been triggered between 8 to 12 months earlier than actually occurred.
Figure 2 provides a graphical presentation of the information that was summarized in Table A-4, and it includes data on the unemployment rate.
Please note that Figure 2 uses different numerical scales for changes in unemployment levels and for the unemployment rate. Because the correspondence between the two scales was determined by page size rather than by a particular reason, readers should not place any significance in the two lines crossing each other. The scale for the changes in unemployment levels compared with same month in the previous year is located on the left-hand y-axis. The scale for the unemployment rate is located on the right-hand y-axis.
Figure 2. Recessions, Changes in Unemployment Compared with the
Same Month in Previous Year, Unemployment Rates, and Temporary
Federal Benefit Availability, January 1979-July 2012
Source: CRS figure. Timing of recessions from National Bureau of Economic Research. Estimated changes in unemployment compared to same month in the previous year from the Current Population Survey data, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Other Measures: Changes in UC Benefits Exhaustions and Changes in Long-Term Unemployment
Beyond the IUR, TUR, and changes in the total number of unemployed, several other measures of unemployment are often used in assessing the severity of employment conditions. These measures include the number of unemployed workers who exhaust UC benefits and the number of workers who have been unemployed for more than 26 weeks (the number of long-term unemployed).
Figure 3 shows the change in the number of exhaustion of UC benefits. Figure 4 shows the change in the number of workers who have been unemployed for more than 26 weeks. Generally, both the changes in the numbers of exhaustees and the changes in the number of long-term unemployed peak after the end of a recession.
Figure 3. Recessions,Changes in Regular UC Benefit Exhaustions
Compared with the Same Month in Previous Year, and Unemployment
Rates, January 1979-July 2012
Source: CRS figure. Timing of recessions from National Bureau of Economic Research. Estimated changes in UC benefit exhaustion compared to same month in previous year from the Employment and Training Administration, Department of Labor. Unemployment rate from the Current Population Survey data, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor.
Figure 4. Recessions, Changes in Long-Term Unemployment Compared
with the Same Month in Previous Year, and Unemployment Rates,
January 1979-July 2012
Source: CRS figure. Timing of recessions from National Bureau of Economic Research. Estimated changes in long-term unemployment compared with same month in previous year and unemployment rate from the Current Population Survey data, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Congressional Interest in "Paying for Temporary Benefits"
Increases in Revenues or Decreases in Expenditures Related to Temporary Unemployment Benefit Legislation
Debate in Congress has included substantial interest in whether benefit extension legislation should include measures to "pay for" the proposals and be subject to House and Senate PAYGO requirements or whether these extensions should be considered "emergency" measures and exempt from the PAYGO requirements.30 With the exceptions of P.L. 110-449, P.L. 112-78, and P.L. 112-96, all laws that create, extend, or alter the EUC08 program have been treated as emergency expenditures or have been part of larger appropriation legislation. P.L. 110-449 expanded the EUC08 program from two to four tiers (from potential maximum duration of 33 weeks to 53 weeks) but did not extend the authorization of the program. The law included a 1.5 year extension of the FUTA surtax.
Historical comparisons with previous extensions of temporary unemployment benefits are difficult because of differing internal House and Senate PAYGO rules that have changed over time.31Table A-6 in the Appendix lists all public laws that have created or altered these temporary unemployment benefit programs. The second column lists all decreases in federal expenditures or increases in federal tax revenues that are related to unemployment benefits within these laws. The last column includes explanatory notes that may put the laws into better context within this particular discussion.
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) identified 11 laws that included reduced expenditures or increased revenues related to temporary unemployment benefits.32 Five laws increased the federal unemployment tax (FUTA) on employers. One law increased income tax on unemployment benefits received by individuals. Two laws increased the estimated withholding requirements for certain corporate income taxes. One law began to require interest payments from the states for federal loans to allow states to continue to provide regular UC benefits to their workers. P.L. 112-78 required new fees be paid when certain new federally guaranteed mortgages were issued. Additionally, P.L. 112-96 did not declare the temporary benefits to be emergency spending and did include some offsets, including the auction of spectrum licenses and increased contributed to federal retirement plans. Some of the other laws did have reduced expenditures or increased revenues but are not included in this tally because (1) they were part of large appropriation bills and generally not subject to PAYGO rules or (2) CRS was unable to directly link these measures to any type of unemployment benefits. CRS did not attempt to identify whether these reductions in expenditures or increases in revenues fully offset the expected costs of the changes in expenditures on temporary unemployment benefits.
Congressional Interest in the "Maximum Length of Total UI Benefits over Time"
Debate in the Congress has included substantial interest in whether the total number of weeks of UI benefits available to workers is overly generous as compared with previous recessions. The EUC08 program has been amended 11 times by P.L. 110-449, P.L. 111-5, P.L. 111-92, P.L. 111-118, P.L. 111-144, P.L. 111-157, P.L. 111-205, P.L. 111-312, P.L. 112-78, P.L. 112-96, and P.L. 112-240. This temporary unemployment insurance program provides additional weeks of unemployment benefits to certain workers who have exhausted their rights to regular UC benefits through a sequential array of four tiers, each of which is an individual entitlement.
On February 22, 2012, President Barack Obama signed P.L. 112-96, the Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012, into law. P.L. 112-96 substantially altered the structure of the program, creating three distinct EUC08 benefit time periods during the remainder of 2012: March through May 2012, June through August 2012, and September through December 2012. (P.L. 112-240 subsequently extended the EUC08 program through December 2013.) EUC08 tier duration and availability in states vary across each of these time periods. In addition, EUC08 tier requirements that establish particular unemployment rate thresholds in order that the state have an active tier II, tier III, and tier IV also change.
As of this report update, in states that have adopted the "TUR" EB trigger and have unemployment above 9%, up to 93 weeks of unemployment benefits may be available to unemployed workers, although only Alaska has an active EB program.
In comparison, the next highest maximum potential duration of unemployment benefits was during the Temporary Emergency Unemployment Compensation (TEUC) program in 2002 and 2003, when up to a total of 72 weeks for unemployment insurance (UC + EB + TEUC) were available in some states. Table A-7 in the Appendix lists the total number of potential maximum available weeks of unemployment benefits available to the unemployed since 1935.
* * * * *
Appendix. Related Tables
Table A-1. Summary of Extended Unemployment Compensation Programs
_____________________________________________________________________
Program
Temporary Unemployment Compensation (TUC)
Public Law
P.L. 85-441
Dates
[Reach back to 6/1957]
6/1958 to 6/1959
Duration of Benefits
Lesser of 50% of the regular UC benefit entitlement or 13 weeks.
Trigger Mechanism
None.
Financing Authority
Interest free loans to state accounts; if a state failed to repay loan by 1/1/63 the FUTA tax in the state was raised to repay the loan.
Program
Temporary Extended Unemployment Compensation (TEUC)
Public Law
P.L. 87-6
Dates
[Reach back to 06/1960]
04/1961 to 03/1962
Duration of Benefits
Lesser of 50% of the regular UC benefit entitlement or 13 weeks.
Trigger Mechanism
None.
Financing Authority
FUTA funds.
Program
Federal-State Extended Benefits Act of 1970 (EB)
Public Law
P.L. 91-373 (Amended several times. See also P.L. 96-499 and P.L. 97-35 below.)
Dates
Permanently Authorized
Duration of Benefits
Lesser of 50% of the regular UC benefit entitlement or 13 weeks.
Trigger Mechanism
National:
IUR: seasonally adjusted rate of at least 4.5% for 3 consecutive months
State:
IUR: at least 5% and 120% of corresponding period in prior 2 years
Financing Authority
50% state SUTA funds.
50% federal FUTA funds.
Program
Emergency Unemployment Compensation (Magnuson Act)
Public Law
P.L. 92-224 and P.L. 92-329
Dates
1/1972 to 3/1973
Duration of Benefits
Lesser of 50% of the regular UC benefit entitlement or 13 weeks.
Trigger Mechanism
National:
IUR: seasonally adjusted rate of at least 4.5%
State:
IUR: adjusted for exhaustions of at least 4% and 120% of prior 2 years
Financing Authority
Federal FUTA funds and general revenue.
Program
Federal Supplemental Benefits (FSB)
Public Law
P.L. 93-572, P.L. 94-12, P.L. 94-45, and P.L. 95-19
Dates
1/1975 to 1/1978
Duration of Benefits
(Varied.) Provided up to 26 weeks of benefits.
Trigger Mechanism
National:
IUR: seasonally adjusted rate of at least 4.5%
State:
IUR: at least 5% and 120% prior 2 years
Financing Authority
Federal FUTA funds for benefits paid before 4/1977; federal general revenue for benefits paid on or after 4/1/1977.
Program
Amendments to Federal-State Extended Benefits Act (EB)
Public Law
P.L. 96-499, P.L. 97-35, and P.L. 102-318
Dates
Permanently Authorized
Duration of Benefits
P.L. 96-499 tightened search and refusal of work requirements. P.L. 97-35 eliminated the national trigger, removed EB recipients from IUR calculations, and required that claimant worked at least 20 weeks recently. P.L. 102-318 added the state TUR option which allowed for up to 20 weeks of EB duration.
Trigger Mechanism
National EB trigger eliminated.
State:
IUR: at least 5% and 120% prior 13-week period in the previous 2 years; at state option IUR of at least 6.0%;. At state option TUR of at least 6.5% State TUR and 110% of prior 13-week period in either or both of two preceding years; an additional 7 weeks of EB if TUR is at least is 8% and 110% of either two preceding comparable periods.
Financing Authority
50% state SUTA funds and
50% federal FUTA funds.
Program
Federal Supplemental Compensation (FSC)
Public Law
P.L. 97-248, P.L. 97-424, P.L. 98-21, P.L. 98-118, P.L. 98-135, and P.L. 99-15. (P.L. 99-272, some recipients in Pennsylvania.)
Dates
[Reach back to 6/1982]
9/1982 to 6/1985
Duration of Benefits
Varied. See Table A-2.
Trigger Mechanism
Varied. See Table A-2.
Financing Authority
Federal FUTA funds and general revenue.
Program
Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC)
Public Law
P.L. 102-164, P.L. 102-182, P.L. 102-244, P.L. 102-318, P.L. 103-6, and P.L. 103-152
Dates
[Reach back to 2/1991]
11/1991 to 4/1994
Duration of Benefits
Varied. See Table A-3.
[Note: Supersedes rather than supplements the EB program. Governors had the option of triggering "off" EB benefits.]
Trigger Mechanism
Introduced "average" IUR, a 13-week comparison measure.
Varied. See Table A-3.
Financing Authority
Federal FUTA funds for benefits paid before 7/5/1992 and after 10/2/1993; with certain exceptions, federal general revenue for benefits paid on or after 7/5/1992 but before 10/3/1993.
Program
Temporary Extended Unemployment Compensation (TEUC, TEUC-X)
Public Law
P.L. 107-147, P.L. 108-1, and P.L. 108-26
Dates
[Reach back to 3/2001]
3/2002 to 3/2004
Duration of Benefits
TEUC: Up to 13 weeks. High unemployment states (TEUC-X); up to an additional 13 weeks.
Trigger Mechanism
TEUC was available nationally. TEUC-X was determined by state level: if the EB program was triggered on; or if the EB program would have been triggered on if section 203(d) of the Federal-State Unemployment Compensation Act of 1970 were amended to read IUR: at least 4% and 120% of the prior 2 years.
Financing Authority
Federal FUTA funds.
Program
Emergency Unemployment Compensation of 2008 (EUC08)
Public Law
P.L. 110-252, P.L. 110-449, P.L. 111-5, P.L. 111-92, P.L. 111-118, P.L. 111-144, P.L. 111-157, P.L. 111-205, P.L. 111-312, P.L. 112-78, P.L. 112-96,and P.L. 112-240
Dates
[Reach back to 5/2007]
7/2008-12/2013 (scheduled end)
Duration of Benefits
Varied. See Table A-4.
Trigger Mechanism
Tier I of EUC08 is nationally available. Depending on date, Tier II, Tier III & Tier IV EUC08 are determined at the state level. See Table A-4 for details.
Financing Authority
Federal FUTA funds. Benefits after February 17, 2009, were paid by general revenue.
Source: CRS.
Table A-2. Details: Federal Supplemental Compensation (FSC) Benefits
______________________________________________________________________________
Dates in Effect
Public Law Benefit Tiers (first claim date)
______________________________________________________________________________
Tax Equity and Fiscal 10 weeks: EB activated 9/12/1982-1/8/1983.
Responsibility Act in state after 6/1/1982
(P.L. 97-248), signed
9/2/1982. 8 weeks: EB inactive in
state; IUR at least
3.5%
6 weeks: all other
states.
Surface Transportation 16 weeks: IUR of 6% or 1/9/1983-3/31/1983.
Act of 1982 (P.L. 97- higher
424), signed 1/6/1983.
14 weeks: EB activated
on or after 6/1/1983
but IUR below 6%
12 weeks: IUR at least
4.5%
10 weeks: IUR at least
3.5% but less than 4.5%
8 weeks: all other
states
Social Security First FSC payments on 4/1/1983-10/18/1983.
Amendments of 1983 4/1/1983 or later:
(P.L. 98-21), signed
4/20/1983. 14 weeks: IUR of 6% or
higher
12 weeks: IUR of at
least 5% but less than
6%
10 weeks: IUR of at
least 4% but less than
5%
8 weeks: All other
states
Additional entitlements
for FSC recipients
before 4/1/1983 10
weeks: IUR at least 6%
8 weeks: IUR at least
4% but less than 6%
6 weeks: all other
states
Federal Supplemental FSC first payments on 10/19/1983-3/31/1985.
Compensation Amendments 10/19/1983 or later:
of 1983 (P.L. 98-135), (No benefits past
signed 10/24/1983. 14 weeks: IUR of 6% or 6/1985).
higher
12 weeks: IUR of at
least 5% but less than
6%
10 weeks: IUR of at
least 4% but less than
5%
8 weeks: all other
states
Additional entitlements
for FSC recipients
after 3/31/1983 but
before 10/19/1983
5 weeks: if all
remaining benefits are
for weeks before
10/19/1983
4 weeks: IUR of at
least 5%
2 weeks: all other
states
______________________________________________________________________________
Source: CRS.
Table A-3. Details: Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC)
Benefits of 1991
______________________________________________________________________________
Dates in Effect
Public Law Benefit Tiers (first claim date)
______________________________________________________________________________
Emergency Unemployment 20 weeks: States with Superseded by P.L.
Compensation Act (P.L. TUR of 9.5% or higher 102-182.
102-164), signed or IUR of 5% or
11/15/1991. higher.
13 weeks: States with
IUR of 4% or higher or
IUR of 2.5% or higher
and UC exhaustion rate
of 29% or higher.
6 weeks: All other
states.
Termination of Claims filed before 11/17/1991-7/3/1992.
Application of Title 6/14/1992
IV of the Trade Act of
1974 to Czechoslovakia 33 weeks: States with
and Hungary (P.L. TUR of 9% or higher or
102-182), signed IUR of 5% or higher.
12/4/1991; and
Emergency Unemployment 26 weeks: All other
Benefits Extension states. Claims filed
(P.L. 102-244), signed on or after 6/14/1992
2/7/1992.
20 weeks: States with
TUR of 9% or higher or
IUR of 5% or higher.
13 weeks: All other
states. [Note: P.L.
102-182 authorized
benefit periods of 20
and 13 weeks; P.L.
102-244 authorized an
additional 13 weeks
for each tier.]
Unemployment 26 weeks: States with 6/14/1992-3/6/1993.
Compensation TUR of 9% or higher or
Amendments of 1992 IUR of 5% or higher
(P.L. 102-318), signed
7/3/1992. 20 weeks: All other
states.
[Note: If national TUR
fell below 7.0%
benefits were to be
phased down. This
condition was not
met.]
Emergency Unemployment Claims filed before 3/7/1993-10/2/1993.
Compensation 9/12/1993
Amendments of 1993
(P.L. 103-6), signed 26 weeks: states with
3/4/1993. TUR of 9% or higher or
IUR of 5% or higher
20 weeks: all other
states Claims filed on
or after 9/12/1993
(triggered by national
TUR falling below 7%
for 2 consecutive
months)
15 weeks: States with
TUR of 9% or higher or
IUR of 5% or higher.
10 weeks: All other
states.
Unemployment 13 weeks: States with 10/3/1993-2/5/1994 (No
Compensation TUR of 9% or higher or benefits past
Amendments of 1993 IUR of 5% or higher. 4/30/1994)
(P.L. 103-152), signed
11/25/1993 7 weeks: All other
states.
[Note: This law also
made permanent changes
to the EB program to
make its benefits more
widely available after
the expiration of
EUC.]
______________________________________________________________________________
Source: CRS.
Table A-4. Details: Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08)
Benefits of 2008
______________________________________________________________________________
Benefit Tiers Dates in Effect
Public Law and Availability and Financing
______________________________________________________________________________
Supplemental 13 weeks (all states) 7/6/2008-3/28/2009 (No
Appropriations Act of benefits past
2008, Title IV 7/4/2009)
Emergency Unemployment
Compensation (P.L. Funded by federal
110-252), signed June Emergency Unemployment
30, 2008 Compensation Account
(EUCA) funds within
Unemployment Trust
Fund (UTF).
Unemployment Tier I: 20 weeks (all 11/23/2008-3/28/2009
Compensation Extension states) (No benefits past
Act of 2008 (P.L. 8/29/2009)
110-449), signed Tier II: 13 additional
November 21, 2008 weeks (33 weeks total) Funded by federal EUCA
if state total funds within UTF.
unemployment rate
(TUR) is 6% or higher
or insured
unemployment rate
(IUR) is 4% or higher.
American Recovery and Same as above. 2/22/2009-12/26/2009
Reinvestment Act of (No benefits past
2009 (P.L. 111-5), [Act included several 6/5/2010)
signed February 17, other interventions
2009 that augmented UC Funded by general fund
benefits: the Federal of the Treasury.
Additional (Additionally, the FAC
Compensation (FAC) program is funded by
benefit of $25/week; the general fund of
at state option, EB the Treasury. The 100%
benefit year could be financing of the EB
calculated based upon program is funded by
exhausting EUC08 the EUCA funds within
benefits; 100% federal the UTF.)
financing of EB
program; and the first
$2,400 of unemployment
benefits were excluded
from income tax in
2009.]
Worker, Homeowner, and Tier I: 20 weeks (all 11/8/2009-12/26/2009
Business Assistance states) (No benefits past
Act of 2009 (P.L. 6/5/2010)
111-92), signed Tier II: 14 additional
November 6, 2009 weeks (34 weeks total, Funded by general fund
all states) of the Treasury.
Extended FUTA surtax
Tier III: 13 through June 2011. The
additional weeks if estimated revenues
state TUR is 6% or collected from FUTA
higher or IUR is 4% or surtax provision were
higher (47 weeks $2.578 billion and
total) offset the estimated
direct spending costs
Tier IV: 6 additional for unemployment
weeks if state TUR is insurance provisions
8.5% or higher or IUR of $2.42 billion.
is 6% or higher (53
weeks total)
[Act included 1.5 year
extension of the
Federal Unemployment
Tax Act (FUTA)
surtax.]
Department of Defense Same as above. 12/27/2009-2/27/2010
Appropriations Act, (No benefits past
2010 (P.L. 111-118), 7/31/2010)
signed December 19,
2009 Funded by general fund
of the Treasury.
Temporary Extension Same as above. 2/28/2010-4/3/2010 (No
Act of 2010 (P.L. benefits past
111-144), signed March 9/4/2010)
2, 2010
Funded by general fund
of the Treasury.
The Continuing Same as above. 4/4/2010
Extension Act of 2010 (retroactive)-
(P.L. 111-157), signed 5/29/2010 (No benefits
April 15, 2010 past 11/6/2010)
Funded by general fund
of the Treasury.
The Unemployment Same as above. 5/30/2010
Compensation Extension (retroactive)-
Act of 2010 (P.L. [Note this did not 11/27/2010 (No
111-205), signed July include an extension benefits past
22, 2010 of the Federal 4/30/2011)
Additional
Compensation (FAC) Funded by general fund
benefit of $25/week of the Treasury.
for those receiving
UC, EUC08, EB,
Disaster Unemployment
Assistance, or Trade
Adjustment Assistance.
The FAC expired on
June 2, 2010.]
The Tax Relief, Same as above. 11/28/2010
Unemployment Insurance (retroactive)-
Reauthorization, and 12/31/2011 (No
Job Creation Act of benefits past
2010 (P.L. 111-312), 6/9/2012)
signed December 17,
2010 Funded by general fund
of the Treasury.
The Temporary Payroll Same as above. 1/1/2012-2/18/2012 (No
Tax Cut Continuation benefits past
Act of 2011 (P.L. 8/11/2012)
112-78), signed
December 23, 2011 Funded by general fund
of the Treasury.
Middle Class Tax Tier I: 20 weeks (all 2/19/2012-5/26/2012
Relief and Job states)
Creation Act of 2012 Funded by general fund
(P.L. 112-96), signed Tier II: 14 additional of the Treasury.
February 22, 2012 weeks (34 weeks total,
all states)
Tier III: 13
additional weeks if
state TUR is 6% or
higher or IUR is 4% or
higher (47 weeks
total)
Tier IV: 6 additional
weeks if state TUR is
8.5% or higher or IUR
is 6% or higher (53
weeks total); 16 weeks
if no EB and all other
conditions met (63
weeks total)
Middle Class Tax Tier I: 20 weeks (all 5/27/2012-9/1/2012
Relief and Job states)
Creation Act of 2012 Funded by general fund
(P.L. 112-96), signed Tier II: 14 additional of the Treasury.
February 22, 2012 weeks if TUR is 6% or
higher (34 weeks
total, all states)
Tier III: 13
additional weeks if
state TUR is 7% or
higher or IUR is 4% or
higher (47 weeks
total)
Tier IV: 6 additional
weeks if state TUR is
9.0% or higher or IUR
is 6% or higher (53
weeks total)
Middle Class Tax Tier I: 14 weeks (all 9/2/2012-12/29/2012
Relief and Job states) (No benefits past
Creation Act of 2012 12/29/2012)
(P.L. 112-96), signed Tier II: 14 additional
February 22, 2012 weeks if TUR is 6% or Funded by general fund
higher (28 weeks of the Treasury.
total)
Tier III: 9 additional
weeks if state TUR is
7% or higher or IUR is
4% or higher (37 weeks
total)
Tier IV: 10 additional
weeks if state TUR is
9.0% or higher or IUR
is 6% (47 weeks total)
Note: no phase down.
American Taxpayer Same as above. 12/29/2012
Relief Act of 2012 (retroactive)-
(P.L. 112-240), signed 12/28/2013 Funded by
January 2, 2013 general fund of the
Treasury.
______________________________________________________________________________
Source: CRS.
Table A-5. Timing of Recessions, 12-Month Change of at Least One
Million, and Extended Unemployment Benefits, 1990-2013
______________________________________________________________________________
1980 Recession 1981-1982 Recession
________________________ _____________________
No Months Months
Temporary after P.L. 97- after
Federal Recession 248, FSC Recession
Extension Begins Benefits Begins
______________________________________________________________________________
Date began January 1980 -- July 1981 --
First 12-month increase in April 1980 3 months November 4 months
unemployment of at least 1 1981
million
Congress first enacts Nonea NA August 13 months
extension 1982
Program becomes active None NA September 14 months
1982
End recession July 1980 6 months November 16 months
1982
Last change of at least 1 March 1981 14 months April 1983 21 months
million more unemployed
Authorization ended (does NA NA March 44 months
not include phase out) 1985
______________________________________________________________________________
[table continued]
______________________________________________________________________________
1990-1991 Recession 2001 Recession
_________________________ _____________________
Months P.L. 107- Months
P.L. 102- after 147, after
164, EUC Recession TEUC Recession
Benefits Begins Benefits Begins
______________________________________________________________________________
Date began July 1990 -- March --
2001
First 12-month increase in November 4 months August 5 months
unemployment of at least 1 1990 2001
million
Congress first enacts August 13 months February 11 months
extension 1991 2002
Program becomes active November 16 months March 12 months
1991b,c 2002
End recession March 8 months November 8 months
1991 2001
Last change of at least 1 September 17 months September 20 months
million more unemployed 1992 2002
Authorization ended (does February 42 months January 34 months
not include phase out) 1994 2004
______________________________________________________________________________
[table continued]
______________________________________________________________________________
2007 Recession
__________________________________________________
P.L. 110- Months
252, after
EUC08 Recession
Benefits Begins
______________________________________________________________________________
Date began December --
2007
First 12-month increase in March 2008 3 months
unemployment of at least 1
million
Congress first enacts June 2008 6 months
extension
Program becomes active July 2008 7 months
End recession June 2009 18 Months
Last change of at least 1 May 2010 17 Months
million more unemployed
Authorization ended (does Scheduled: Scheduled:
not include phase out) December 72 months
2013
______________________________________________________________________________
Source: CRS. Timing of recessions from National Bureau of Economic
Research, http://www.nber.org/cycles.html
unemployed use data from the Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor
Statistics; http://www.bls.gov/data/home.htm
FOOTNOTES TO TABLE A-5
a The individual eligibility for the federal-state EB program
was tightened by P.L. 96-499. The federal EB trigger was eliminated and the
calculation of IUR was altered to be less generous by P.L. 97-35.
b H.R. 3201 was passed on August 2, 1991; the President signed
the bill (P.L. 102-107) but did not declare an emergency; thus, no benefits
were available. Congress sent S. 1722 to the President who vetoed it on
October 1, 1991. For a statement on the reasons for the veto, see
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=20097
c Although P.L. 102-164 was signed into law on November 15,
1991, it was immediately superseded by two other laws: P.L. 102-182, signed
12/4/1991, and P.L. 102-244, signed February 7, 1992. P.L. 102-182 authorized
benefit periods of 20 and 13 weeks depending on state economic conditions;
P.L. 102-244 authorized an additional 13 weeks for each tier.
Table A-6. Funding Temporary Unemployment Programs
______________________________________________________________________________
Revenue Increases or
Expenditure Decreases
Related to Un-
Public Law employment Benefits Notes
______________________________________________________________________________
Temporary Unemployment None. This was a loan to the
Compensation Act of states for an
1958, (P.L. 85-441) additional 13 weeks of
temporary state
unemployment benefits.
Loan had to be repaid.
Temporary Extended Temporary Federal
Unemployment Unemployment Tax Act
Compensation Act of (FUTA) increase of
1961, (P.L. 87-6) 0.4% for 1962 and
0.25% for 1963.
Emergency Unemployment None.
Compensation Act of
1971, (P.L. 92-224)
[No title] (P.L. An increase in FUTA
92-329) tax from 3.2% to 3.28%
in 1973.
Emergency Unemployment None.
Compensation Act of
1974 (P.L. 93-572)
Tax Reduction Act None. Large bill with many
(P.L. 94-12) tax reductions.
Emergency Compensation None.
and Special
Unemployment
Assistance Extension
Act of 1975 (P.L.
94-45), signed June
30, 1975.
Emergency Unemployment None.
Compensation Act of
1977 (P.L. 95-19),
signed April 12, 1977.
Tax Equity and Fiscal Large bill. Offsets
Responsibility Act of included: Increased
1982 (P.L. 97-248) FUTA wage base of
individual annual
earnings paid by
employers from $6,000
to $7,000. Increased
gross FUTA tax from
3.4% to 3.5%
(employers in states
with approved UI laws
continued to receive
2.7% credit against
FUTA tax so net tax is
0.8%); effective date:
1/1/1983. Increased
gross FUTA tax from
3.5% to 6.2% (this
included a permanent
tax of 0.6% plus a an
extension of a
temporary 0.2% surtax
that was to continue
until all general
revenue advances to
EUCA were repaid; the
offset for state
employers increased to
5.4% so net FUTA tax
remained at 0.8% until
all general revenue
advances to EUC have
been rapid and then
dropped to 0.6%);
state experience
rating schedules were
required to have a
maximum rate of at
least 5.4%; effective
date: 1/1/1985 but
5-year phase-in
period. Reduced income
thresholds limiting
inclusion of state and
federal UI benefits in
adjusted gross income
to $12,000 (from
$20,000) for single
taxpayers and to
$18,000 (from $25,000)
for married taxpayers
filing jointly (waived
estimated tax
penalties for 1982
attributed to this
change); effective for
benefits paid on or
after 1/1/1982.
Surface Transportation Large bill. None. Unable to identify UC
Assistance Act of 1982 specific offsets.
(P.L. 97-424) However, bill revised
the authorization of
Highway appropriations
which included
increased fuel taxes.
Social Security Required states to pay The "cap" on automatic
Amendments of 1983 interest, when due, as FUTA credit reductions
(P.L. 98-21) a condition for all (available if certain
the State's employers solvency requirements
to continue to receive are met) which was
offset credit against scheduled to expire at
the FUTA tax and for the end of CY 1987,
the State to continue was made permanent.
to receive grants for
administration;
effective date:
4/1/1983.
Federal Supplemental None.
Compensation Extension
of 1983 (P.L. 98-118)
Federal Supplemental None. Study to examine how
Compensation to prevent retirees
Amendments of 1983 and prisoners from
(P.L. 98-135) receiving unemployment
compensation.
[No title] (P.L. 99-15) None.
Emergency Unemployment None. In order for EUC to be
Compensation Act of implemented, the
1991 (P.L. 102-107) President had to
submit to Congress a
separate declaration
of a budget emergency
that, in effect, would
have allowed off-
budget financing.
Although the President
signed the legislation
into law, he did not
issue the emergency
declaration and thus
the new program was
inoperative
Emergency Unemployment Among other financing Superseded by P.L.
Compensation Act of provisions: extension 102-182.
1991 (P.L. 102-164) of 0.2% FUTA surtax
for one additional
year (through 1996);
making estimated tax
payment conform more
closely to a
taxpayers' liability;
making permanent the
tax refund offset
program for collecting
non-tax debts owed to
the federal
government; and
improving the
collection of
guaranteed student
loans in default.
Termination of None.
Application of Title
IV of the Trade Act of
1974 to Czechoslovakia
and Hungary (P.L.
102-182)
To increase the number Amended Internal
of weeks for which Revenue Code (IRC)
benefits are payable provisions to provide
under the Emergency for a temporary
Unemployment increase in the amount
Compensation Act of of certain corporate
1991, and for other estimated tax
purposes (P.L. payments, by setting
102-244) the applicable
percentage for such
annualized payments at
95% of the tax
liability for each of
1993 through 1996
(rather than 94% for
1993 and 1994, and 95%
in 1995 and 1996).
Unemployment Amended the IRC to
Compensation extend by one year,
Amendments of 1992 through December 31,
(P.L. 102-318) 1996, a phaseout of
personal exemptions
for certain high
income taxpayers.
Revised IRC
requirements for
corporate estimated
tax payments. Required
large corporations to
base their estimated
tax payments on an
increased percentage
of their current year
tax liability as
follows: (1) 97% for
taxable years
beginning after June
30, 1992, and before
1997 (rather than 95%
or 93%, determined on
an actual or annual
basis); and (2) 91%
for taxable years
beginning in 1997 and
thereafter (rather
than 90%).
Emergency Unemployment None.
Compensation
Amendments of 1993
(P.L. 103-6)
Unemployment None.
Compensation
Amendments of 1993
(P.L. 103-152)
Job Creation and None.
Worker Assistance Act
of 2002 (P.L. 107-147)
[No title] (P.L. None.
108-1), signed January
8, 2003.
Unemployment None.
Compensation
Amendments of 2003
(P.L. 108-26)
Supplemental None.
Appropriations Act of
2008, Title IV
Emergency Unemployment
Compensation (P.L.
110-252)
Unemployment None.
Compensation Extension
Act of 2008 (P.L.
110-449)
American Recovery and None.
Reinvestment Act of
2009 (P.L. 111-5),
Worker, Homeowner, and Extended 0.2% FUTA
Business Assistance surtax an additional
Act of 2009 (P.L. 1.5 years (through
111-92) June 2011).
Department of Defense None. Large bill, EUC08
Appropriations Act funding was declared
2010 (P.L. 111-118) emergency spending.
The Temporary None.
Extension Act of 2010
(P.L. 111-144)
The Continuing None.
Extension Act of 2010
(P.L. 111-157)
The Unemployment None.
Compensation Extension
Act of 2010 (P.L.
111-205)
Tax Relief, None.
Unemployment Insurance
Reauthorization, and
Job Creation Act of
2010 (P.L. 111-312)
The Temporary Payroll Required the Director
Tax Cut Continuation of the Federal Housing
Act of 2011 (P.L. Finance Agency (FHFA)
112-78) to require each
government-sponsored
enterprise (GSE) (the
Federal National
Mortgage Association
[Fannie Mae] and the
Federal Home Loan
Mortgage Corporation
[Freddie Mac]) to
charge a guarantee fee
in connection with any
guarantee of the
timely payment of
principal and
interests on
securities, notes, and
other obligations
based on or backed by
mortgages on
residential real
properties designed
principally for the
occupancy of from one
to four families.
Middle Class Tax Large bill, EUC08 was
Relief and Job not declared emergency
Creation Act of 2012 spending. The bill
(P.L. 112-96) included offsets; for
example, the auction
of spectrum licenses
and increased federal
retirement
contributions.
American Taxpayer None.
Relief Act of 2012
(P.L. 112-240)
______________________________________________________________________________
Source: CRS.
Notes: Some of these laws reduced expenditures or increased revenues
but (1) they were part of large appropriation bills and generally not subject
to PAYGO rules or (2) CRS was unable to directly link these measures to any
type of unemployment benefits.
CRS did not attempt to identify whether these reductions in expenditures or
increases in revenues fully offset the expected costs of the changes in
expenditures on temporary unemployment benefits.
Benefits, 1935-Present
_____________________________________________________________________
Dates
8/14/1935 to present (first regular unemployment benefit check sent out 8/17/36)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 26 weeks (in the absence of temporary programs that provide additional weeks of benefits)
Dates
6/23/58 to 6/30/59 (reachback to 6/30/57)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa
Up to 26 weeks
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Temporary Unemployment Compensation (TUC) (P.L. 85-441)
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
Up to 13 weeks
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 39 weeks
Dates
4/8/61 to 6/30/62 (reachback to 6/30/60)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Temporary Extended Unemployment Compensation (TEUC)
(P.L. 87-6)
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
Up to 13 weeks
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 39 weeks
Dates
10/10/1970 to 3/6/01 (P.L 91-373 enacted 8/10/70; national-level trigger available after 1/1/1972; states given from 10/10/1970 to 1/1/1972 to include state-level EB trigger in state programs, although many states acted sooner)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
EB Program Created. Up to 13 weeks of EB benefits if either national- or state-level triggers are reachedc
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 39 weeks (in the absence of temporary programs that provide additional weeks of benefits)
Dates
1/30/72 to 3/31/73 (no reachback)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
Up to 13 weeks of EB benefits if either national- or state-level triggers are reached c
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Temporary Compensation (TC) (P.L. 92-224, P.L. 92-329)
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
Up to 13 weeks
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 52 weeks
Dates
1/1/75 to 2/1/78 (no reachback)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
Up to 13 weeks of EB benefits if either national- or state-level triggers are reached c
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Federal Supplemental Benefits (FSB)
(P.L. 93-572, P.L. 94-12, P.L. 94-45, P.L. 95-19)
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
1/75-3/75 Up to 13 weeks
3/75-3/77 Up to 26 weeks
4/77-2/78 Up to 13 weeks
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 52 weeks
Up to 65 weeks
Up to 52 weeks
Dates
9/12/82 to 6/30/85 (reachback to 6/1/82)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
Up to 13 weeks of EB benefits if state-level triggers reached (EB national trigger was eliminated in 1981)c
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Federal Supplemental Compensation (FSC)
(P.L. 97-248, P.L. 97-424, P.L. 98-21, P.L. 98-118, P.L. 98-135, P.L. 99-15)
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
9/82-12/82 Up to 10 weekse
1/83-3/83 Up to 16 weekse
4/83-6/85 Up to 14 weekse
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 49 weeks
Up to 55 weeks
Up to 53 weeks
Dates
11/17/91 to 4/30/94 (reachback to 2/91)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
Up to 13 weeks of EB benefits if state-level triggers reached (national trigger eliminated in 1981)c
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC) (P.L. 102-164, P.L. 102-244, P.L. 102-318, P.L. 103-6, P.L. 103-152)
Note: EUC benefits were reduced by any EB benefits received
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
11/91-2/92 Up to 20 weekse
2/92-6/92 Up to 33 weekse
6/92-9/93 Up to 26 weekse
9/93-10/93 Up to 15 weekse
10/93-4/94 Up to 13 weekse
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 46 weeks
Up to 59 weeks
Up to 52 weeks
Up to 41 weeks
Up to 39 weeks
Dates
3/7/93 to present
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
New, Optional TUR Trigger Provides up to 20 Weeks of EB Benefits (P.L. 102-318). In states without the optional TUR trigger, EB benefits remain capped at 13 weeksd
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 46 weeks in states that have adopted optional TUR trigger (in the absence of temporary programs providing additional weeks of benefits)
Dates
3/9/02 to 12/31/03 (reachback to 3/15/01)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
Up to 20 weeks in states that have adopted optional TUR trigger,d otherwise up to 13 weeks (state may opt to trigger off EB if the state is on TEUC)
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Temporary Extended Unemployment Compensation (TEUC) (P.L. 107-147, P.L. 108-1, P.L. 108-11, P.L. 108-26)f
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
Up to 26 weekse,f
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 72 weeks
Dates
7/08 to present (reachback to 5/07)
Permanent Programs
Regular Unemployment Benefitsa:
Up to 26 weeks
Permanent Programs
Extended Benefits (EB) Programb:
Up to 20 weeks in states that have adopted optional TUR triggerd,g,g otherwise up to 13 weeks
Temporary Programsa
Program Name:
Emergency Unemployment Compensation Act of 2008 (EUC08)
(P.L. 110-252, P.L. 110-449, P.L. 111-5, P.L. 111-92, P.L. 111-118, P.L. 111-144, P.L. 111-157, P.L. 111-205, P.L. 111-312, P.L. 112-78, P.L. 112-96, and P.L. 112-240)
Temporary Programsa
Duration of Program Benefits:
7/08-11/08 Up to 13 weeks
11/08-11/09 Up to 33 weekse
11/09 -2/12 Up to 53 weekse,g
2/12-5/12 Up to 63 weekse,g
6/12-8/12 Up to 53 weekse,g
9/12-12/13 Up to 47 weekse,g
Total Weeks of Unemployment Benefits (Regular, Extended, and Temporary Benefits Programs)
Up to 59 weeks
Up to 79 weeks
Up to 99 weeksg
Up to 99 weeksg
Up to 99 weeksg,i
Up to 93 weeksg
Sources: This table was originally constructed by Alison Shelton. The information is from the U.S. Department of Labor, "Chronology of Federal Unemployment Compensation Laws" and "Special Extended Benefit Programs." Both documents are available at http://www.ows.doleta.gov/unemploy/laws.asp#FederalLegislation.
FOOTNOTES TO TABLE A-7
a In 1940, only 1 state paid up to 26 weeks of regular unemployment benefits and 13 states paid no more than a maximum of 15 weeks of benefits. By 1950, 13 states paid up to 26 weeks of benefits. By 1960, 32 states paid up to 26 weeks of benefits and 9 states paid more than 26 weeks of benefits (these states generally paid around 30 weeks of benefits). During the 1990s, most states that had previously paid more than 26 weeks of benefits reduced the maximum number of available weeks to 26, as a result of state trust fund insolvency and the introduction of the Extended Benefits program in the 1970s. Source: July 9, 2009, e-mail from Jerry Hildebrand, Chief of the Division of Legislation, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor. Beginning in 2011, several states enacted legislation to decrease the maximum number of weeks of regular state UC benefits. Until recently, all states paid at least up to 26 weeks of UC benefits to eligible, unemployed individuals. (Montana pays up to 28 weeks of benefits and Massachusetts pays up to 30 weeks of benefits.) For details and enactment dates of state duration changes, see CRS Report R41859, Unemployment Insurance: Consequences of Changes in State Unemployment Compensation Laws, by Katelin P. Isaacs.
b The permanent Extended Benefits program and certain temporary programs use unemployment rate thresholds, or "triggers," to determine whether the programs should be activated either at the state or national levels, depending on the program and the historical time period. The two unemployment rate triggers that have been used are the IUR and the TUR. The IUR is the number of unemployment insurance beneficiaries divided by the number of workers covered by unemployment insurance. The TUR is the number of unemployed workers (i.e., actively seeking work) divided by the total number of workers (employed and unemployed).
c The Extended Benefits program initially had both national and state-level triggers. EB was activated nationwide twice: (1) from February 23, 1975 through July 2, 1977; and (2) from July 20, 1980 through January 24, 1981. During periods when EB was not available nationally, the EB state-level trigger requirements sometimes caused EB to be unavailable in states with persistently high unemployment. The state-level trigger requirements were therefore suspended seven times between October 1972 and December 1976. Revisions to the EB program in 1981 kept the maximum number of available weeks at 13 but eliminated the national-level trigger. The 1981 revisions also established more restrictive criteria for activating EB at the state level, through two provisions: (1) raising IUR thresholds that states need to reach to trigger onto EB; and (2) modifying the IUR calculation in a way that results in lower state IURs (specifically, eliminating EB claimants from the definition of unemployment insurance beneficiaries in the numerator of the IUR calculation). The 1981 changes to the EB program also added a second, optional, trigger for 13 weeks of benefits that states could adopt, effective for weeks after September 25, 1982.
d The Unemployment Compensation Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-318) allowed states to make EB more widely available by adopting a third, optional trigger that would provide for 13 or 20 additional weeks of benefits depending on the state's TUR. Some, although not all, states cross the EB program's TUR trigger thresholds before crossing the program's IUR trigger. This is because of differences among states in unemployment insurance coverage (for example, the number of non-insured self-employed workers in the state) and also differences in states' eligibility rules and administrative practices that can limit the number of unemployment beneficiaries (the numerator in the IUR calculation, see footnote b).
e The figure shown is the maximum number of benefit weeks that were available under the program during the given time period. Certain temporary programs, however, used benefit "tiers" to provide more benefit weeks to states with relatively higher unemployment rates than to states with relatively lower unemployment rates. For example, the FSC program provided up to five different tiers of benefit durations within a single time period. The FSC and TEUC programs, besides linking the number of benefit weeks to state unemployment rates, also linked the number of available benefit weeks in a state to whether or not the state's EB program had triggered on. The EUC08 program provided a single tier of benefits when it was first became effective in July 2008; this was expanded to two tiers of benefits in November 2008 and to four tiers of benefits in November 2009.
f The TEUC program also provided an additional 13-26 weeks of benefits to certain unemployed airline employees.
g P.L. 111-312 made technical changes to certain triggers in the EB program. P.L. 111-312 allows states to temporarily use lookback calculations based on three years of unemployment rate data (rather than the permanent law lookback of two years of data) as part of their mandatory IUR and optional TUR triggers if states would otherwise trigger off or not be on a period of EB benefits. This authorization for this option was extended by P.L. 112-78, P.L. 112-96, and P.L. 112-240. The authorization now is set to expire on the week ending on or before December 31, 2013.
h Beginning in 2011, several states enacted legislation to decrease the maximum number of weeks of regular state UC benefits. Changes in UC benefit duration have consequences for the duration of federal unemployment benefits that may be available to unemployed workers. State UC benefit duration is an underlying factor in the calculation of duration for additional federal unemployment benefits. Thus, the reduction of the maximum duration of regular UC benefits reduces the number of weeks available to unemployed workers in the federal extended unemployment programs (including the Emergency Unemployment Compensation [EUC08] and EB). See CRS Report R41859, Unemployment Insurance: Consequences of Changes in State Unemployment Compensation Laws, by Katelin P. Isaacs, for a list of these states and estimates of the impact of the reductions on total potential weeks of unemployment insurance.
i P.L. 112-96 capped the maximum number of weeks to not exceed 99.
END OF FOOTNOTES TO TABLE A-7
Author Contact Information
Julie M. Whittaker
Specialist in Income Security
jwhittaker@crs.loc.gov, 7-2587
Katelin P. Isaacs
Analyst in Income Security
kisaacs@crs.loc.gov, 7-7355
1 For more information on UC, CRS Report RL33362, Unemployment Insurance: Programs and Benefits, by Julie M. Whittaker and Katelin P. Isaacs. For information on the most recent temporary federal unemployment benefit extension, see CRS Report R42444, Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08): Current Status of Benefits, by Julie M. Whittaker and Katelin P. Isaacs.
2 For details see CRS Report R41859, Unemployment Insurance: Consequences of Changes in State Unemployment Compensation Laws, by Katelin P. Isaacs.
3 The percentage of UC beneficiaries as compared to all unemployed workers is commonly referred to as the "recipiency rate." The exhaustion rate measures the proportion of all UC benefit recipients who exhaust their UC eligibility and do not find a job within that period.
4 For a recent summary of available research on this topic, see CRS Report R41676, The Effect of Unemployment Insurance on the Economy and the Labor Market, by Thomas L. Hungerford.
5 For a detailed survey of the disincentive effect, see Gary Burtless, "Unemployment Insurance and Labor Supply: A Survey," in W. Lee Hansen and James Byers, eds., Unemployment Insurance (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990).
6 Congressional Budget Office, "Options for Responding to Short-Term Economic Weakness," January 2008.
7 For example, Karen Campbell and James Sherk, Extended Unemployment Insurance -- No Economic Stimulus, Heritage Foundation, Center for Data Analysis Report #08-13, November 18, 2008, find that an increase in potential duration of 20 additional weeks of unemployment benefits leads to a .22 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate. See also, Bruce Meyer, "Unemployment and workers' compensation programmes: rationale, design, labour supply and income support," Fiscal Studies, vol. 23, no. 1 (2002), pp. 1-49. See also Rajeev Chetty, "Moral Hazard versus Liquidity and Optimal Unemployment Insurance," Journal of Public Economy, vol. 116, no. 2 (2008), pp. 173-234.
8 Benefits are available for up to 26 weeks in most states (30 weeks in Massachusetts; 28 weeks in Montana; 25 weeks in Arkansas and Illinois; 20 weeks in Michigan, Missouri, and South Carolina; 12-23 weeks in Florida, depending on the state unemployment rate; 14-20 weeks in Georgia, depending on the state unemployment rate).
9 Walter Corson and Mark Dynarski, A Study of Unemployment Insurance Recipients and Exhaustees: Findings from a National Survey, U.S. Department of Labor Employment and Training Administration, Unemployment Insurance Occasional Paper 90-3, 1990.
10 These services may include training on job search, job counseling, and funding for educational and skill-enhancing courses.
11 For details on these trends, see CRS Report RL32757, Unemployment and Older Workers, by Julie M. Whittaker.
12 For a detailed explanation on the determination of recessions, see CRS Report R40052, What is a Recession and Who Decided When It Started? , by Brian W. Cashell.
13 The NBER explicitly states that it considers real GDP to be the single measure that comes closest to capturing what it means by "aggregate economic activity." Therefore, it places considerable weight on real GDP and other output measures. Thus, the NBER takes into account employment but not unemployment or unemployment rates when determining recessionary periods. The NBER's approach is summarized at http://www.nber.org/cycles/recessions.html.
14 See, for example, President Franklin Roosevelt's remarks at the signing of the Social Security Act: http://www.ssa.gov/history/fdrstmts.html#signing.
15 The IUR is the three-month average ratio of persons receiving UC benefits to the number of persons covered by UC. The IUR is substantially different than the total unemployment rate (TUR) because it excludes several important groups: self-employed workers, unpaid family workers, workers in certain not-for-profit organizations, and several other, primarily seasonal, categories of workers. In addition to those unemployed workers whose last jobs were in the excluded employment, the insured unemployed rate excludes the following: those who have exhausted their UC benefits; new entrants or reentrants to the labor force; disqualified workers whose unemployment is considered to have resulted from their own actions rather than from economic conditions; and, eligible unemployed persons who do not file for benefits.
16 The TUR is a three-month average of the unemployment rate published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics: that is, the ratio of the total number of unemployed persons divided by the total number of employed and unemployed persons.
17 For additional information, see CRS Report R40368, Unemployment Insurance Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, by Julie M. Whittaker.
18 For a detailed description of the EUC08 program, see CRS Report RS22915, Temporary Extension of Unemployment Benefits: Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08), by Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker.
19 The summary does not include P.L. 108-11, which created the special "TEUC-A" program. That temporary program was in response to the unemployment of airline workers resulting from the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, subsequent security measures, and the Iraq war. Signed into law on April 16, 2003, the program provided up to 39 weeks of extended benefits to individuals whose regular UC was based on qualifying employment with a certified air carrier, at a facility in an airport, or with a producer or supplier of products or services for an air carrier. The program had two tiers of benefits, known as TEUC-A and TEUC-AX, which were authorized through the week ending before December 29, 2003.
20 See CBO Testimony of Peter Orszag on Options for Responding to Short-Term Economic Weakness before the Committee on Finance United States Senate on January 22, 2008; http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/89xx/doc8932/01-22TestimonyEconStimulus.pdf.
21 For another paper that takes this position, see the following: Douglas W. Elmendorf and Jason Furman, If, When, How: A Primer on Fiscal Stimulus, January 2008, available at http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2008/0110_fiscal_stimulus_elmendorf_furman.aspx.
22 Mark Zandi, "Washington Throws the Economy a Rope," Dismal Scientist, Moody's Economy.com, January 22, 2009. The multiplier estimates the increase in total spending in the economy that would result from a dollar spent on a given policy option. Zandi does not explain how these multipliers were estimated, other than to say that they were calculated using his firm's macroeconomic model. Therefore, it is difficult to offer a thorough analysis of the estimates.
23 For example, Karen Campbell and James Sherk, Extended Unemployment Insurance-No Economic Stimulus, Heritage Foundation, Center for Data Analysis Report #08-13, November 18, 2008. See also Martin Feldstein's testimony before the Committee on Finance United States on January 24, 2008, in which he stated that "[w]hile raising unemployment benefits or extending the duration of benefits beyond 26 weeks would help some individuals . . . it would also create undesirable incentives for individuals to delay returning to work. That would lower earnings and total spending." Available at http://www.senate.gov/~finance/hearings/testimony/2008test/012408mftest.pdf.
24 For a detailed explanation of the more common employment measures, see CRS Report RL32642, Employment Statistics: Differences and Similarities in Job-based and Person-based Employment and Unemployment Estimates, by Julie M. Whittaker.
25 See the http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/assets/fy2010_new_era/Department_of_Labor.pdf.
26 Advisory Council on Unemployment Compensation, "1994 Findings and Recommendations: Extended Benefits," in Collected Findings and Recommendations: 1994-1996. Reprinted from Annual Reports of the Advisory Council on Unemployment Compensation to the President and Congress (Washington, DC, 1996).
27 The Advisory Council also suggested that a modified IUR that also included those who had exhausted UC benefit in the IUR calculation would be superior to the current IUR calculation.
28 The federal trigger was an IUR of at least 4.5% for three consecutive months.
29 The Advisory Council on Unemployment Compensation advised against the use of substate or regional data in determining the availability of extended benefits. Advisory Council on Unemployment Compensation, Collected Findings and Recommendations: 1994-1996, 1996, p. 5.
30 For example, see the text of consideration of S.Amdt. 3355. Senator Bunning stated ". . . As every struggling family knows, we cannot solve a debt problem by spending more. We must get our debt problems under control, and there is no better time than now. That is why I have been down here demanding that this bill be paid for. I support the programs in the bill we are discussing, and if the extension of those programs were paid for, I would gladly support the bill."
31 See CRS Report R41157, The Statutory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010: Summary and Legislative History, by Bill Heniff Jr.
32 In particular, either the increase was directly associated with unemployment benefits (e.g., increases in FUTA) or was an increase in revenue in a law where the only major increased expenditure was in altering the benefit structure or authorization time limit of the temporary unemployment benefit.
END OF FOOTNOTES
- AuthorsWhittaker, Julie M.Isaacs, Katelin P.
- Institutional AuthorsCongressional Research Service
- Code Sections
- Subject Area/Tax Topics
- Jurisdictions
- LanguageEnglish
- Tax Analysts Document NumberDoc 2013-10939
- Tax Analysts Electronic Citation2013 TNT 88-18